Compared with the 6× Sanger-sequenced chimpanzee genome 6 (panTro2), the bonobo genome assembly has a similar number of bases in alignment with the human genome, a similar number of lineage-specific substitutions and similar indel error rates ( Table 1 and Supplementary Information, sections 2 and 3), suggesting that the two ape genomes are of similar quality. To understand the evolutionary relationships of bonobos, chimpanzees and humans better, we sequenced and assembled the genome of a female bonobo individual (Ulindi) and compared it to those of chimpanzees and humans. That ancestor may in fact have possessed a mosaic of features, including those now seen in bonobo, chimpanzee and human. No parsimonious reconstruction of the social structure and behavioural patterns of the common ancestor of humans, chimpanzees and bonobos is therefore possible. Thus, chimpanzees and bonobos each possess certain characteristics that are more similar to human traits than they are to one another’s. Compared with chimpanzees, bonobos are playful throughout their lives and show intense sexual behaviour 3 that serves non-conceptive functions and often involves same-sex partners 4. They do not form alliances with one another and there is no evidence of lethal aggression between groups 3. By contrast, bonobo males are commonly subordinate to females and do not compete intensely for dominance rank 1. For example, male chimpanzees use aggression to compete for dominance rank and obtain sex, and they cooperate to defend their home range and attack other groups 3. However, the behaviour of the two species differs in important ways 1. Nature volume 486, pages 527–531 ( 2012) Cite this articleīonobos and chimpanzees are highly similar to each other in many respects. The bonobo genome compared with the chimpanzee and human genomes
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